Systematic documentation
Under the sixth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Qianlong, who reigned from 1735 to 1796, the Qing court restored its rule over Xinjiang in the mid-18th century after quelling the Junggar separatist regime and later crushing a rebellion launched by the Islamic Aktaglik Sect leaders Burhanidin and Hojajahan.
To consolidate control over the frontier, systematic knowledge of the geography and demographics of the Western Regions was required. At the time, the scant information available on the regions came from fragmentary records and old texts, which were neither comprehensive nor accurate. Therefore, Qianlong personally conceived of compiling a dedicated book and oversaw the work to systematically document the geographical features and territorial extent of China’s northwestern frontier in official records.
In Chinese history, imperial courts often initiated the compilation of large-scale gazetteers during periods of peace and prosperity. During Qianlong’s reign, the Qing court reached territorial reunification, representing the peak of this practice. The emperor attached great importance to cultural projects, viewing them as vital instruments for manifesting imperial power and strengthening the foundations of his rule.
Under him, the imperial court initiated and supervised large-scale documentation projects, from the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, a mammoth Chinese encyclopedia, to the Comprehensive Gazetteer of the Great Qing, as well as numerous state compendia and regional gazetteers. The Geography Records of Western Regions represented an extension of this cultural policy into frontier governance.
Cartographic prowess
The compilation of the Geography Records of Western Regions was ordered in 1756 and officials, scholars and cartographic experts were brought together for the project, which was made possible due to the Qing Dynasty’s advances in cartographic technology and the institutionalization of field surveys. Building upon the routes taken by the Qing army during its western campaigns to quell separatist forces and rebels, the compilation team used cartographic methods introduced from the West, including latitude and longitude measurements, to produce precise mappings of Xinjiang’s mountains, cottages and postal routes.
The work provided the first systematic mapping of the terrain on both sides of the Tianshan Mountains, a majestic mountain range dividing Xinjiang into northern and southern parts, and rectified earlier misconceptions about key geographical features. This endeavor formed part of the Qing Dynasty’s second large-scale national mapping project after the Complete Map of the Empire done by Jesuit priests under Emperor Kangxi, the fourth Qing ruler. The atlas in the Kangxi era was largely completed in 1718, without detailing the Western Regions.
Equipped with instruments introduced from the West, including theodolites and quadrants, Qianlong’s surveying team spent several years producing reasonably accurate maps. In addition, the Qing court enlisted local officials and garrison commanders to supply oral accounts, thereby establishing a compilation model in which cartographic and textual evidence corroborated each other.
The first draft of the Geography Records of Western Regions was completed in 1762 and finalized after Qianlong reviewed it in 1782. It ran into 52 volumes and took 26 years to complete.
Comprehensive record
The Geography Records of Western Regions covers topics such as territorial boundaries, physical geography and natural products. It also dwells on administrative institutions, military defense, agricultural and garrison systems, tribute and taxation, and local customs. The book explicitly delineates the territorial extent of Xinjiang, integrating the northern and southern parts of the region into a single administrative framework, embodying the territorial concept of great unity.
There are clear and detailed descriptions of Xinjiang’s mountain ranges, river systems, climatic conditions and ecological features. For example, the orientations and tributaries of major mountain ranges such as the Tianshan and Kunlun are meticulously traced, the hydrological structure of the Tarim River is elucidated, and the climatic contrasts between north and south Xinjiang are documented.
It also provides a comprehensive record of Xinjiang’s diverse cultural landscape. Additionally, it details the distribution and customs of major ethnic groups—including the Uygur, the Mongol and the Kazak—along with the locations and administrative functions of major cities such as Ili and Kashi (Kashgar).
Besides, there is quantitative data on the number of households in towns and villages, the extent of cultivated land and the distances between postal relay stations. Much of this information was drawn from the Qing military station system, lending the data a high degree of reliability.
While compiling the Geography Records of Western Regions, the editors incorporated vast materials from previous non-official writings. This content underwent official screening and revision, making the work serious and scientific.
An invaluable legacy
More than a geographical book, the Geography Records of Western Regions constituted a major political and cultural project in a specific historical context, with far-reaching significance.
First and foremost, it reaffirmed, both intellectually and legally, that Xinjiang was an inseparable part of the Qing realm, thus providing the dynasty with irrefutable geographical grounds for its sovereignty over the region.
It also offered a practical guide for the Qing court in administering the Western Regions. The records on cities, garrison farmlands, natural resources, tribute and taxation systems, and tribal demographics provided the empirical basis for the Qing Dynasty to build an administrative structure in Xinjiang, implement frontier reclamation and defense, and design fiscal policies. By offering a comprehensive understanding of local realities, it enabled the central government to govern according to indigenous customs and to exercise effective administrative control over the region.
Moreover, the detailed records of strategic passes, garrisons and major thoroughfares—combined with precise survey of distances and cardinal directions—provided essential strategic information for the deployment, coordination and combat readiness of the Qing military.
The work also holds immense scientific value for the study of the Western Regions. Through onsite surveying and mapping, it marked the first large-scale, scientific measurement and recording of Xinjiang’s geography. This led to an unprecedented level of precision in map-making and geographical description, correcting numerous errors found in previous documentation. It thus became an indispensable classic and source material for later research on Xinjiang, inspiring a series of critical works.
Furthermore, the volumes include a large body of materials on the region’s ethnic customs, languages, history and religions. This content preserves rich humanistic information about 18th-century Xinjiang, providing a valuable legacy for anthropological, ethnological and historical studies.
Naturally, the Geography Records of Western Regions also carries the limitations of its era. Since its fundamental purpose was the consolidation of Qing rule, the selection of its content prioritized imperial authority, order and control. Consequently, the work either neglects or simplifies the local ethnic groups’ own perspectives and historical narratives.
Nevertheless, the Geography Records of Western Regions remains a pivotal and landmark text that defined the territory, stabilized the empire and initiated new academic inquiry. Its success lies in seamlessly combining the pursuit of geographical knowledge with the practical application of imperial power. –The Daily Mail-Beijing Review news exchange item
